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社会理论与数字媒介实践:解析媒介与社会

时间:2023-11-23 理论教育 版权反馈
【摘要】:本书旨在提供这样一个工具箱。第七章回到全球规模,审视形塑媒介文化的底层动态关系。这个工具箱潜隐着三条指针,这是本章勾勒的媒介理论和社会理论路径里浮现出来的原理。但充分把握这一点和媒介的关系是有困难的,因为媒介机构的作用告诉我们“有什么”,至少告诉我们有什么“新东西”。这条路径的出发点是社会理论一个特色鲜明的领域。

社会理论与数字媒介实践:解析媒介与社会

如果你跟随我读到了这里,你就会意识到,本书不描绘一幅笔直行程的地图。六条不确定的线路互相交叉,但地平线上没有它们的交汇点,累积的不确定性不可能在一个交汇点上廓清。理解媒介、社会世界今天的关系,这不是分析某一网络界面的问题,也不是分析某一技术革新的问题。实际上,我们需要一整套中观的概念,才能把握媒介嵌入深层社会空间所产生的秩序和无序的类型问题。本书旨在提供这样一个工具箱。

在第二章里,我们迈出重要的一步: 认真研究媒介作为世界上多种行为习惯的结合体。以后的所有章节都以这一步为基础。

在第三章里,我们仔细考察媒介机构宣示的世界窗口的观念,还要考察由此而生的仪式和神话;在世界各地千差万别的情况下,媒介仪式和神话仍然在我们的媒介经验中占主导地位。

第四章看媒介神话和仪式的影响之一: 媒介过程对社会隐性的形塑作用,包括隐性的伤害和符号的暴力;大规模媒介机构的习惯做法对个人和群体可能会造成伤害。

接下来的四章直接转向媒介对社会和政治变革的影响。

第五章检视经常有人做出的宣示: 媒介新形式改变了社会构造和政治行动的可能性。这些言论常常在知识上不完备,或没有足够的知识做支撑,对维持特定社会政治类型的资源不够了解。

第六章审视媒介饱和对远离媒介的领域比如教育、医学和法律长远影响,也考察其已然媒介饱和的领域比如政治的影响。这使我们能从一个新方向重温一些经典的概念比如权威、资本。

第七章回到全球规模,审视形塑媒介文化的底层动态关系。

最后的第八章研究当代生活方式涉及的伦理正义问题,以及媒介通过当代生活方式产生的伦理和正义问题。

这个工具箱潜隐着三条指针,这是本章勾勒的媒介理论和社会理论路径里浮现出来的原理。本章开卷提出的第一条原理是: 非线性原理【147】。在描绘媒介在社会变革里的作用时,我们都必须随时质疑媒介变革的线性记述,质疑人们回应技术的态度,质疑这些态度产生的结果。矛盾、紧张和歧义影响媒介在一切规模上的社会机制。所以,媒介的社会学描绘必须平衡两种记述: 一是权力如何跨越空间得以维持,并横穿纷纭复杂的个人观点;一是日常的媒介邂逅给我们的感觉,给我们提供的有关世界的策略。不建基于政治经济学的媒介现象学是盲目的,但忽略媒介现象学的媒介政治经济学是很不完全的。

另有两条原理与非线性原理相关。第二条原理是,媒介研究必须分析媒介实践,将其当作人们所做的一套开放的事情。世界不是一个文本,而是习惯和资源编织的一张大网,包含书写和解释文本的习惯;把世界当作一个文本来解读,那是被误导了【148】。20世纪80年代的受众研究和技术研究,它们抓住了这条原理,这是对广义社会科学的贡献。如果短缺克劳德·费斯彻尔(Claude Fischer)所谓的“对使用者的探索”(user heuristic),对技术发展所作的记述就有风险,那只不过是对技术营销的鹦鹉学舌而已【149】

第三条原理是表征的物质性,需要仔细分析。表征有实质意义,是行使权力、争取权力的物质场所。简言之,我们“有什么”的感觉总是社会政治斗争的产物,总是权力起作用的场所【150】。但充分把握这一点和媒介的关系是有困难的,因为媒介机构的作用告诉我们“有什么”,至少告诉我们有什么“新东西”。媒介的作用是掩盖权力场里日常错综复杂的关系。媒介的目标是使人们的注意力集中在某个方向,集中在社会知识和政治知识的共同场所上。媒介机构嵌入现代社会的核心场所,因为到了数字媒介时代,媒介机构斗争的历史越来越激烈。对当代社会表面上看自然的媒介“秩序”有必要进行解构。雷蒙德·威廉斯说得好:“如果我们认为必须从秩序着手去进行研究,我们就难以提出切中要害的问题: 社会秩序是否真的服务于我们的需要。”【151】

我不准备按照媒介给我们描绘的所谓世界的“事实”去探索媒介、社会和世界。我宁可追随卢克·波尔坦斯基(Luc Boltanski)路径,将具体而连续的制度建构之类的媒介宣示置于前景,以便继续不断地解析制度建构的机制和结果,我在上文将这样的解析称为“媒介中心神话”的解构【152】。我们需要从唯物的角度去描绘,这样的社会建构是如何发生的;这样的建构始于一个多元的社会本体,同时又注意,一个多元的社会如何通过简化的行为有效地得到还原,而这些行为本身也是主要的权力形式。这个观点不同于马克思的或拉康[1]的意识形态观点,它不依靠宣称: 有一个真正底层的意识形态结构、欲望或驱力,更没有一个价值的制度性熔炉(即媒介)。主导是多元的;既含有经济的维度,又含有象征的维度,即波尔坦斯基所谓的“决定是什么的领域”。在社会分析里,因此而获得重要意义的是“总计和表征是什么的工具,至少是决定什么是与集体相关的要素”: 它们是形塑“事情之所以如此”的制度【153】。如此,虽然波尔坦斯基没有明确提及媒介机构,他还是揭示了一个道理: 为什么对媒介的批判性理解对理解当代世界至关重要。

我们这样的媒介研究路径植根于社会理论的关怀,所以它避免了“媒介中心主义”,媒介中心主义常被人指为媒介研究中隐藏的危险【154】。这条路径的出发点是社会理论一个特色鲜明的领域。在厘清事物秩序时,它强调表征的作用,摒弃最近出现的社会理论里反表征的转向。诚然,“非表征理论”(non-representational theory)有一些用处(它强调游戏、前认知现象、实践的变异性;见第二章),但它最基本的一步忽略了表征行为和内容,所以它对媒介研究实在是帮不上忙。“非表征理论”的主要倡导者奈杰尔·希利弗特(Nigel Thrift)讨论媒介时,只谈情感或情绪【155】。新闻该不该谈呢? 他这一举措并非偶然,其驱动力是一个信念:“发生的事情的形貌和内容不断变化”,“不存在稳定的‘人’的经验”,人的“感官”在不断延伸【156】。然而,这种媒介理论的极端形式与权力的实际运行情况相悖;实际情况是,“有什么”的表征是稳定的。事实上,和它追随的行为者网络理论一样,非表征理论完全不去描绘,表征的内容和解释是如何嵌入世界的【157】

摒弃表征的路径略显怪异,其背后隐藏的是围绕社会学的经验基础的论辩。斯科特·拉希(Scott Lash)对此作了最好的分析。他认为,社会学应该告别经典社会理论的“理性主义”,用康德的话说,其基础是经验性的先验(empirical a priori)(尤其迪尔凯姆的社会“事实”,比如社会生活的纽带,即大群人聚集时直觉的纽带)。我们应该转向另一种经验: 后天的经验,这种经验记录一个“社会过程,它尚不足以持久凝聚成‘事实’”。拉希眼中的选择直截了当: 过去的社会学问“社会秩序为何可能成立”;新的方法论简明扼要,追问:“我们体验的社会现象是什么?”【158】他宣称,我们深深嵌入技术系统,这意味着“没有时间/没有空间……去进行反思”,所以我们的社会本体中就没有表征扮演的角色。实际上对他而言,“认识论本体论二元论被扁平化为极端的技术单子论了”【159】。我强调解构媒介中心主义的神话,这和他的怀疑论异曲同工;他强调社会秩序的继承语言,同时又标明重要的差异。即使不存在聚焦于国家之类的社会“中心”,系统厘清社会现象秩序的尝试仍然络绎不绝,且十分重要: 并非一切都是混乱不堪的。社会功能主义声称,社会秩序井然,社会各部分相互依存,就像人体或有机体。社会功能主义是一支重要的社会力量;具有讽刺意义的是,它仍然携带着过去的社会话语的印记【160】! 既然媒介机构仍然积极推进自己在社会秩序里自然而然的角色,实际上仍然代表着这样的角色,忽略诸如此类言论的媒介理论就失去了一种重要的工具【161】

由此可见,我们的社会理论选择,对我们是否掌握了必要的工具去理解媒介在世上的作用,意义重大,在急剧变革和多维变革的时代尤其重要。我们的观点是,社会是多元的,而不是统合一体的;我们承认媒介和其他技术在社会实际构成中的作用【162】,同时又承认技术的社会表征的作用。时间的流动性当然超乎政府、制度和社会学家强加秩序的意图,但实践本身又依靠排序和分类的过程(媒介就是在这样的过程中演化的)。日常生活不是纯发明的空间,晚近的一些理论却持这样的观点【163】。说到底,我所谓“社会取向的媒介理论”是: 我认真看待社会,将其视为物质约束性和可能性的场所,认真看待媒介在社会建构中的作用。在检视各国媒介生活的千差万别时,这是我坚持的关键原理,本书第七章尤其坚守这一原则,但这条原理是贯穿全书的。

注释

【1】Braudel(1981: 561).

【2】Rantanen(2009: 15).

【3】Lazarsfeldand Merton(1969: 495).

【4】Giddens(1984: 164). Compare Mann (1986: 1),Beck (2000a),Urry (2000),Touraine(2007).

【5】Zielinski(2006: 7),Tomlinson(1999: 9).

【6 】Jensen ( 2010: 110) . Compare Thompson ( 1995: 19-22) ,Shirky ( 2010: 53) and Friedrich Krotz's helpful definition of media as a distinctive modification of communication involving any of the following: “a technology,societal institution,organizational machine,a way of setting content in a scene,and a space of experience of a[recipient]”( Krotz 2009: 23) .

【7 】For media's relation to modernity,see Thompson ( 1995 ) ,Garcia Canclini( 1995) ,Mattelart ( 1994) . For broad histories of media,see Briggs and Burke( 2005) ,Chapman ( 2005) ,Starr ( 2004) . On the nature of the internet,see thedefinition of Chadwick ( 2006: 7) .

【8 】On contemporary media as“environment”,see,for example,Press and Williams( 2011: 8-16) .

【9 】Shirky ( 2010: 61) .

【10】See,for example,Lev Manovich's account of how artistic production is changedin the era of new media by the externalization online of the resources that artistshad once drawn on“somewhere below consciousness”( 2001: 127) .

【11】Morgan ( 2008: 54) .

【12】Thevenot ( 2007a: 238) .

【13】Innis ( 1991) .

【14】Hepp ( 2010: 39-40) ; Debray ( 1996: 15) .

【15】Proust ( 1983: 134-135) . I quote from the C. Scott Moncrieff and T. Kilmartintranslation but prefer in the text a more recent translation of the novel's overalltitle.

【16】I wrote this passage before finding John Tomlinson's ( 2007: 119-120 )interesting,if differently directed,discussion of the same passage.

【17】Williams ( 1973: 295-296) .

【18】DeLillo ( 1999) .

【19】Quotations from Gitlin ( 2001: 20) ; Castells ( 2009: 55) .

【20】Vaidyanathan ( 2011) ; Tomlinson ( 2007: 95) ; Michael Pocock,CEO of Yell,quoted Guardian,14 July 2011.

【21】Daily Mirror reader,quoted Weaver ( 2007) .

【22】Silverstone ( 2002: 762) .

【23】Bolter and Grusin ( 2000: 50) .

【24】Gitlin ( 2001: ch. 1 ) . On RFID chips,see Hayles ( 2009: 47 ) ; Press andWilliams ( 2011: 202-204) .

【25】http: / /en. wikipedia. org /wiki /supersaturation,last accessed 6 January 2011:Gitlin ( 2001: 67) does not draw on this technical meaning.

【26】Shannon and Weaver ( 1949) . For brilliant analysis,see Kittler ( 2010: 43-46,208) .

【27】Golding and Murdock ( 1991 ) ; Garnham ( 1990 ) ; Miege ( 1989 ) ; Mosco( 2009) ; Chakravarty and Zhao ( 2008) .

【28】Kittler ( 1999,2010) . As Meyrowitz ( 2008) notes,all branches of media theory( medium theory,uses and gratifications,power theory) overlap to some degree.For“medium theory”generally,see Meyrowitz ( 1994) .

【29】Kittler ( 2010: 67 and 176; 226; 44,added emphasis; 31,42-43,33 and 176) .For commentary,see Peters ( 2010: 5 ) and the critique of Lovink ( 2003:27,22-29) .

【30】Thompson ( 1995 ) ; Giddens ( 1990 ) . For related discussion,see Moores( 2005) ,Longhurst ( 2005) ,Hesmondhalgh and Toynbee ( 2008) .

【31】Graham ( 2004: 23) .

【32】Elias ( 1994) ; Bourdieu ( 1993) ; Durkheim and Mauss ( 1970) .

【33】Mills ( 1959) ; Gouldner ( 1962) ; Splichal ( 2008) .

【34】Here,contrast an elegant defence of a broader communication theory: Jensen( 2010,especially ch. 2) .

【35】Zielinski ( 2006: 269) .

【36】Mosco ( 2009: 117) . Compare Sconce ( 2003) ; Curran,Fenton and Freedman(forthcoming); Palfrey and Gasser(2008: 294); Morozov(2011).

【37】Marvin ( 1987) . For important recent critiques of the myth of“free”information,see Morozov ( 2011) ,Lanier ( 2011) ; for an example of that myth,see respectedjournalist commentator Jeff Jarvis's ( 2011 ) comment that “print feels finite,digital infinite. But print is also limiting,while digital is freeing”.

【38】Eisenstein ( 1983: 22,added emphasis) .

【39】Eisenstein ( 1983: 44,71,78,85) . The expansion of “archive”capacity was abasic consequence also of writing itself ( Goody 1976) .

【40】Febvre and Martin ( 1990: 170) .

【41】Winston ( 1998: 2) .

【42】El-Nawawy and Iskendar ( 2002: 68) on 1990s Iraq; on the contemporary Arabworld,see Kraidy and Khalil ( 2009: 31) .

【43】Manovich ( 2001) .

【44】Berners-Lee,quoted Introna and Nissenbaum ( 2000: 179) ; on the“informationrevolution”generally,see for example Bimber ( 2003) and the then BBC Directorof Global News,Richard Sambrook ( Sambrook 2006) .

【45】Schiller ( 2007) ; Lessig ( 2002) .

【46】Petersen ( 2010: 60-64) ; Shiels ( 2010) . The Guardian ( 24 June 2011) reportedthat an FTC investigation on Google was imminent.

【47】General internet penetration is stated at 78. 3% ( USA) ,80. 9% ( South Korea)and 85. 9% ( Denmark) : www. internetworldstats. com; mobile broadband accessis however 89. 8% in South Korea,according to OECD figures: www. oecd. org /document /54 /0,3746,en_2649 _34225 _38690102 _1 _1 _1 _1,00. html ( both lastaccessed 6 September 2011) . On the UK's continuing digital divide,see Ofcom( 2009a and 2009b) ,and globally,see ITU /UNCTAD ( 2007) . On relative costsof a computer,see Chadwick ( 2006: 65) .

【48】Wheeler ( 2004) on the Middle East; Seiter ( 2005: 13) and Livingstone ( 2002)on class and children's internet use; Ofcom ( 2010,in 2007-2011: 249-250) onclass and internet access generally; Warschauer ( 2003: 24) and Kling ( 1999) ona vicious circle; Ellison,Steinfield and Lampe ( 2007) on social networking. Fora useful recent summary of the digital divide debate,see Chadwick ( 2006:ch. 4) .

【49】CNNIC ( 2010) for China internet statistics; on Marathi,see Curran,Fenton and Freedman(forthcoming: ch. 2).

【50】Debray(1996: 16).

【51】Wuthnow(1989); Wittmann(1999).

【52】Kittler(2010: 67).

【53】Arnison(2002); Shirky(2010: 16).

【54】Buckingham(2008: 15); Herring(2008: 87).

【55】Seech. 5.

【56】Shirky(2010: 156); Proust(1982: 390).

【57】Beck,Giddens and Lash(1994); Fornäs(1995: 2-7); Lash(2002); Mc Quire (2008: 21-22).

【58】Poster(1999: 17).

【59】Anderson(1983); Billig(1995).

【60】Jenkins ( 1992) ,Gamson ( 1994) ,Priest ( 1995) were important early studies onhow audience and fans get involved in the media process; on“mediation”,seeMartin-Barbero ( 1993 ) ,Couldry ( 2000a ) ,Silverstone ( 2005 ) ; for therapprochement between media studies and anthropology,see Dayan and Katz( 1992) ,Ginsburg ( 1994) ,Rothenbuhler and Coman ( 2005) .

【61】E. g. Turkle ( 1996) ,Katz and Rice ( 2002) ,Livingstone ( 2002) .

【62】Compare Couldry ( 2000a: 184-195) .

【63】Economist,20 April 2006,added emphasis.

【64】On the USA,see Barnouw ( 1990[1975]: ch. 2) and Douglas ( 1987: chs 5 and9) ; on France,see Barbrook ( 1995 ) ; on the UK,see Scannell and Cardiff( 1991) .

【65】On the need for capital,see Garnham ( 1990) ,Benkler ( 2006: ch. 2) ; on therelation of media to state,see Mattelart ( 1994) ,Barry ( 2001) ,Larkin ( 2008) .

【66】Medrich ( 1979) on the constant TV household; UK statistics from Ofcom ( 2011,in 2007-2011) .

【67】Thompson ( 1990: 15 ) ; Kine ( 2000: 43 ) on early use of phone wires inthe USA.

【68】Contrast Beckett ( 2010) and Jones ( 2009) on the“communities”attached to theUK's Daily Telegraph website and US network news channel websites,respectively.

【69】Respectively,Manovich ( 2008: 53) ,Marshall ( 2006: 50) .

【70】On“mass media”,see Manovich ( 2008: 53) ,Marshall ( 2006: 50) ,McQuail( 2005: 139) . On Google,see Carr ( 2011) and Google CEO Eric Schmidt'scomments following his MacTaggart Lecture,Edinburgh Television Festival,August 2011,quoted Kiss ( 2011) .

【71】On Apple and Google,see Kirwan ( 2010) ; Eric Schmidt,CEO of Google,hasspoken of the new “Gang of Four”( Google,Apple,Amazon,Facebook ) ,quoted Waters and Edgecliffe-Johnson ( 2011) ; on the strategic use of the term“platform”,see Gillespie ( 2010) ; on Microsoft and Skype,see Arthur ( 2011) .

【72】Garrahan ( 2011) on Premium VOD; Castillo ( 2011) on Google and YouTube;Stuart ( 2010) on“cloud gaming”.

【73】Anderson and Wolff ( 2010) ; compare Zittrain ( 2008) .

【74】Lotz ( 2009a: 12-13 n. 2) ; Katz ( 2009) .(www.xing528.com)

【75】Dawson ( 2007) quoted Lister et al. ( 2009: 229) ; Curtin ( 2009: 13) .

【76】Spigel and Olsson ( 2004) ; Turner and Tay ( 2009: 3) ; Lotz ( 2009a: 12 ) ;Curtin ( 2009: 18) .

【77】Miller ( 2010: 143) ; Ofcom ( 2011,in 2007-2011) ; on China,see Miao ( 2011:111) .

【78】Uricchio ( 2009: 63) .

【79】See Bird ( 2003) ,and for interesting reflections on the significance of this foraudience research,see Ruddock ( 2007: ch. 7) .

【80】Jenkins ( 2006: 13) .

【81】Madianou and Miller ( 2011) .

【82】Gitelman ( 2008: 7) .

【83】On the era of “plenty”,see Ellis ( 2000) ; on news consumption at work,seeBoczkowski ( 2010: ch. 5) .

【84】On decline in newspaper consumption,see Rantanen ( 2009: 115) ,Starr ( 2009) ;yet 65% of Finnish 15- to 29-year-olds read a newspaper compared with 24% inthe USA ( World Association of Newspapers 2008) and newspaper consumptionamong Swedish youth remains strong ( Bergstrom and Wadbring 2008) ; on freepapers,see Straw ( 2010) .

【85】Lotz ( 2009b: 95,109) ; Banner,quoted Lotz ( 2009b: 105) .

【86】Pew ( 2008) for US television news consumption; on UK and German figures,seeCouldry ( 2009a) discussing Ofcom ( 2007-2008,in 2007-2011) ,Oemichen and Schröter(2008); on Denmark,see Linaa Jensen (2011); on European Arab migrants'news consumption,see www. media-citizenship.eu.

【87】On the USA,see Miller ( 2010: 12-13) ,Curtin ( 2009: 13) ,Spigel ( 2004: 1)and Robinson and Martin ( 2009 ) who report television viewing as almostunchanged between 1975 and 2005; on the UK,see Ofcom ( 2007-2011) ; onGermany,see Medien Basisdaten,www. ard. de /intern /basisdaten /onlinenutzung,last accessed 20 November 2008.

【88】See respectively Curtin ( 2009: 16) ,Miller ( 2010: 144) .

【89】Lotz ( 2009a: 9,2) ; Johnson ( 2009) .

【90】Scannell ( 2009) ; Bolin ( 2011: ch. 5) .

【91】Couldry,Livingstone and Markham ( 2010) ; and see our 2006 report availablefrom www. publicconnection. org. uk.

【92】Wyatt,Thomas and Terranova ( 2002) ; Selwyn,Govard and Furlong ( 2005) .

【93】Napoli ( 2008: 60) .

【94】Halpern ( 2010: 26 ) . Compare Gillespie ( 2011 ) ,Powell ( 2011 ) ,Zittrain( 2008) .

【95】On mobile privatization,see Williams ( 1992: 26-31 ) and compare Lefebvre( 1971: 100-101) ; on mutualization,see Rusbridger ( 2009) and compare Jarvis( 2007) ,Bruns ( 2005) ,Russell ( 2011) .

【96】Christensen and Ropke ( 2010 ) ; Crary ( 1999: 1 ) ; on the bias towardsentertainment,see Turner ( 2010 ) , Thussu ( 2009 ) , and, for importantanticipation of this argument,Morley ( 1999) .

【97】On the internet's open structure,see Bolter ( 2001) ; Lessig ( 2002: 34ff) .

【98】Benkler ( 2006: 32-33) .

【99】Carroll ( 2007) on the Los Angeles Times.

【100】Starr ( 2009: 4) . In the UK,there was a 5 million drop in newspaper readershipbetween 1992 and 2007 ( National Readership Survey 2007,quoted in Brook2007) ,with recent NRS surveys suggesting continuing falls ( Press Gazette,7July 2011) . In the USA,the percentage of the adult population reading any dailynewspaper fell from 45. 1% to 39. 6% between 2008 and 2010,according toNewspaper Association of America data ( www. naa. org,last accessed 25 June2011) .

【101】Beecher ( 2009) ; Phillips ( 2011) .

【102】Rantanen ( 2009: 129,132 ) . On the uncertainty of cross-subsidy,see Starr( 2009: 10-12 ) ,Fenton ( 2009 ) , Massing ( 2009a and b ) , Sambrook( 2010: 20-21) ,Lievrouw ( 2011: 125-132) .

【103】On UK TV advertising to 2010,see Bradshaw ( 2011) and Ofcom ( 2011,in2007-2011 ) ( admittedly by August 2011 current figures looked lessencouraging: Sweney 2011) ; globally,see Thomas ( 2011) .

【104】Smythe ( 1977) .

【105】Turow ( 2007 ) ; Bolin ( 2009: 351; compare 2011: ch. 3 ) . A similarargument -about the fragmentation of the public sphere and communicationsspace can also be based on the way digital media enhance specializedcommunication ( Sunstein 2001; Lievrouw 2001; anticipated by Pool ( 1983:261) . On fragmentation and political marketing,see Bennett and Manheim( 2006) ,Howard ( 2006) .

【106】Compare Buonanno ( 2008: 26) on the likelihood that“generalist”televisionwill continue alongside“narrowcast”television.

【107】Compare Douglas ( 1987: 317) on radio in modernity.

【108】Beniger ( 1986) .

【109】For more detailed discussion,see Couldry ( 2003a,2006) .

【110】Appadurai ( 1996) ; Ong ( 2006) .

【111】Bourdieu ( 1977) ; compare Boltanski ( 2009) .

【112】Larkin ( 2008: ch. 2,esp. 66) ; see also Spitulnik ( 2010) .

【113】Jones ( 2009: 30,33) on US late-night talk shows.

【114】Turner ( 2010) ; compare Couldry ( 2009a) .

【115】On celebrity,see Marshall ( 2006: 644) ; on the implications of“interactivity”,see Andrejevic ( 2008b) . For media institutions' needs to retain our attentionmore generally,see Dayan ( 2009) ,Uricchio ( 2009: 72) ,Thomas ( 2004) .

【116】Feuer ( 1983) ; Bourdon ( 2000) .

【117】Hillis ( 2009: 58) . Compare Gergen ( 2002: 240) on the conflict between thelocalism of cell phone and the general reach of mass media. Burgess and Green'ssurvey of YouTube found that only 8% of uploaders to YouTube were mediacompanies,although traditional media were the source of 42% of uploadedmaterial ( 2009: 43-46) .

【118】Thomas ( 1971: 510-511) .

【119】Burgess and Green ( 2009: 37) on YouTube; Press Gazette,11 May 2011,onWENN and Twitter; see Waters ( 2011) ,on financial value.

【120】Scoble and Israel ( 2006 ) ; Arvidsson ( 2011 ) . On the closeness of socialnetworking sites to capital,see Palfrey and Gasser ( 2008: 268 ) and Beer( 2008) ,criticizing boyd and Ellison ( 2008) .

【121】Turner ( 2009: 62) on national broadcasters; Chinese viewer,quoted Sun andZhao ( 2009: 97) .

【122】Meyer ( 2003 ) ,Thompson ( 2001 ) ; on “space of appearances”,see Arendt( 1960) .

【123】Sassen ( 2006) ; Turner ( 2007a: 288) .

【124】Zelizer ( 1993) ; www. bbc. co. uk 11 February 2011 ( my emphasis) .

【125】Kellner ( 2003: 12) ,compare McNair ( 2006) ,Riegert ( 2007) ,Imre ( 2009a) ;Turner ( 2010: 22) .

【126】Volcic ( 2009) on former Yugoslavia; Sun and Zhao ( 2009) on China; Capino( 2003) on the Philippines; Kraidy and Khalil ( 2009: 33) on the Arab world;Baym ( 2005) and the major new study by Delli Carpini and Williams ( 2011) onthe USA.

【127】Castells ( 1996) ; for the distinction between“media in space”( communicationfootprints) and“spaces in media”( topologies of mediated communication) ,seeAdams ( 2009: 1-2) .

【128】Giddens ( 1990: 14 ) and see geographical insights into how inequalities arefolded into scale: Massey ( 1994: ch. 6) ; Janelle ( 1991) ; Smith ( 1993) .

【129】Beck ( 2000b: 11-12) compare Urry ( 2000: 183) ; Hardt and Negri ( 2000:347-348,cf. 58) .

【130】Held et al. ( 1999: 15-17) .

【131】Tarde ( 1969[1922]: 306-307) .

【132】In Ficowski ( 1990: 179) .

【133】McQuire ( 2008: 22) .

【134】Giddens ( 1990) .

【135】For discussion,see Cohen ( 2009) . The Iranian government subsequently tried toblock access to tributes to Neda Agha-Soltan: Guardian,5 June 2010.

【136】Larson and Park ( 1993) .

【137】The history of such claims is vast: see,on the telegraph,Flichy ( 1994: 9) .

【138】Jansson ( 2006: 100) ,discussing Bauman ( 2000) . Compare Martuccelli ( 2005:46-49,55) .

【139】Poster ( 2006: 78 ) on demateralization; Sassen ( 2006: 344 on materialconditions; 310 on rescaling; 10 on normative orders) ; Tunstall ( 2008: xiv) onnational media.

【140】Latour ( 1999: 18) ,and see further ch. 4 for ANT's relevance to media. Somegeographers even reject the notion of “scale”altogether ( Marston,Jones andWoodward ( 2005) ; compare Thrift ( 2008: 17) ) but this move has been subjectto fierce attack ( Leitner and Miller 2007) . See,for a related argument,Morley( 2011) and also the conclusion to ch. 5.

【141】Fischer ( 1992 ) on the early telephone; Gergen ( 2002 ) ,Ling and Donner( 2009) on mobile phone.

【142】Urry ( 2007: 8-9) .

【143】Martuccelli ( 2005: 83,58-69) .

【144】I write of “human life”,while acknowledging that the boundaries between“human” and “nature”,and between “human” and “technology ”,areconstructed ( Strathern 1992) . And yet,as Strathern points out,“we still actwith Nature in mind”( 1992: 197,quoted Barry 2001: 11) . Equally,we stillact with “the Human' in mind,which does not mean there is a simple orspecifiable human“essence”( Hayles 1999) .

【145】Jonas ( 1984) ,Beck ( 1992) .

【146】Silverstone ( 2007) ; Couldry ( 2006) .

【147】Compare Debray ( 1996: 15) ; Briggs and Burke ( 2005: 4) .

【148】Anthropologist Henrietta Moore ( 1986: 116) comments that space is not a text -“the organization of space is not a direct reflection of cultural codes andmeanings; it is,above all,a context developed through practice. ”

【149】Fischer ( 1992: 17,85) .

【150】I focus here on the materiality of how representations take effect,once received.Another important issue is the materiality,and uneven distribution,of theprocesses whereby media representations get made and distributed: Boyd-Barrettand Rantanen ( 1998) ; Parks ( 2005) .

【151】Williams ( 1961: 123) .

【152】Couldry ( 2003a,2006) .

【153】Boltanski ( 2011: 9,34,xi) and in French translation ( 2009: 26,61,13) ; forp. 61,I give my slightly adjusted translation.

【154】Hepp ( 2010: 42-43) ,and see earlier Martin-Barbero ( 1993) ,Couldry ( 2006:13-15) ,Morley ( 2007: 200) ,Curran ( 2002: 53) .

【155】Thrift ( 2008: 183-184,242,250) . Compare Parikka ( 2010) .

【156】Thrift ( 2008: 2) . Other writers influenced by Gilles Deleuze go even further anddissolve all process and all subjects into pure“immanence”( Parikka 2010: 234n. 31) ,a move Thrift rightly rejects ( 2008: 13,17) . Parikka offers an accountof how media constitute“worlds”that is entirely non-representational,relying onan account of“affects”that,for all its precision of language,says nothing abouthow media contents matter in the world. See also Clough ( 2009) on Deleuze's“transcendental empiricism”.

【157】Couldry ( 2008b ) criticizing Latour ( 2005 ) ; Knoblauch ( 2011 ) . For anexception,see Andrew Barry's reflections on the role of technology in politicswhich acknowledges the regulatory and constitutive role of technical“information”,although not that of broader representations of the social world( Barry 2001: ch. 7) .

【158】Lash ( 2009: 178) . Compare Savage ( 2009: 157,163-164) . And see specialissue of European Journal of Social Theory 12( 1) in 2009.

【159】Lash ( 2002: 18,16) .

【160】For the long-established problems of functionalism in sociological explanation,see Lukes ( 1975) . On the role of sociological explanation in everyday socialorder,see Boltanski ( 2009: 44) .

【161】For the philosophical basis of my approach to representation in critical realism,see Couldry ( 2008b) : compare Downey ( 2008) . For a powerful critique of thesocial constructivism about facts to which critical realism is opposed,seeBoghossian ( 2007) .

【162】Barry ( 2001) ,Latour ( 2005) .

【163】The best reflections on this complexity remain Lefebvre ( 1971) .

[1] 雅克·拉康(Jacques Lacan,1901—1983),法国心理学家、“法国的弗洛伊德”,代表作《著作集》。

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